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On Aug. 23, 2023, India successfully landed its Chandrayaan-3 mission near the lunar south pole. This was a major achievement for India, as it became the first country to land a spacecraft on the south pole of the moon.
The Chandrayaan-3 mission is part of India’s ambitious space program. The goal of the mission is to study the moon’s south pole, which is thought to be rich in water ice. Water ice is a valuable resource for future human exploration of the moon, as it could be used to support astronauts and make rocket fuel.
The Chandrayaan-3 mission’s achievement represents a key space program milestone for India. It shows rising international interest in lunar exploration. In recent years, more nations and private firms have developed lunar exploration projects. Chandrayaan-3 (which means “lunar module” in Sanskrit) is a major step toward establishing a permanent human presence on the moon. It also shows the Indian Space Research Organization’s (ISRO’s) inventiveness and dedication.
Chandrayaan-3’s goal will be to explore the lunar south pole. This is indeed an area that remains unknown. Chandrayaan-3’s six-wheeled rover is supplied with all useful tools to provide data on the properties of lunar soil and rocks, including:
Lander
Radio Anatomy of Moon Bound Hypersensitive Ionosphere and Atmosphere (RAMBHA) measures the plasma density (ions and electrons) near the surface and its changes over time.
Chandra’s Surface Thermophysical Experiment (ChaSTE) measures the thermal properties of the lunar surface near the polar region.
Instrument for Lunar Seismic Activity (ILSA) measures seismicity around the landing site and delineates the structure of the lunar crust and mantle.
Laser Retroreflector Array (LRA) is an instrument for lunar motion.
Rover
Laser Induced Breakdown Spectroscope (LIBS) determines which elements (manganese, aluminum, silicon, potassium, calcium, titanium, iron) make up the soil and rocks around the landing site.
Alpha Particle X-ray Spectrometer (APXS) derives the chemical composition and infer the mineralogical composition of the lunar surface.
Propulsion module
Spectro-polarimetry of Habitable Planet Earth (SHAPE) will perform spectral and polarimetric measurements of Earth from lunar orbit in the near-infrared (NIR, in the 1- to 1.7-μm range).
Project
Chandrayaan-3 is a significant follow-up mission to Chandrayaan-2, designed to showcase India’s capabilities in achieving a safe landing and successful roving on the lunar surface. The Chandrayaan-3 mission consists of a lander, propulsion module and a rover. The lander will deploy the rover, which will then explore the surface of the moon. The rover is equipped with a variety of instruments, including cameras, spectrometers and a drill. These instruments will be used to study the composition of the moon’s surface and to search for water ice.
The lander module of Chandrayaan-3 has been engineered to execute a soft landing on a predetermined lunar site and deploy the accompanying rover. The rover is equipped to perform in-situ chemical analyses of the lunar surface as it explores its surroundings. Both the lander and rover house scientific payloads intended for conducting experiments on the lunar terrain.
The propulsion module plays a critical role in the mission by transporting the lander module from the launch vehicle’s injection point to a final, 100-km circular polar orbit. It subsequently detaches from the lander module. Additionally, the propulsion module is equipped with a scientific payload, the SHAPE instrument, which will be operational after separating from the lander module.
The Chandrayaan-3 mission is guided by three primary objectives:
Demonstrate the ability to achieve a safe and soft landing on the lunar surface.
Showcase the rover’s mobility and navigation capabilities as it traverses the lunar terrain.
Perform various scientific experiments on the lunar surface, contributing to our understanding of the moon’s composition and environment.
The lander module is packed with advanced technologies, including altimeters; velocimeters; inertial measurement systems; a propulsion system with throttleable liquid engines; navigation, guidance and control (NGC) elements for trajectory design and software components for powered descent; hazard detection and avoidance systems; and a landing leg mechanism.
To validate these advanced technologies, the lander module underwent rigorous testing under Earth conditions. These tests included an integrated cold test, where sensor and navigation performance were evaluated using a helicopter as a test platform, and an integrated hot test, which examined closed-loop performance with sensors, actuators and NGC, using a tower crane as the testing setup. Additionally, the performance of the landing leg mechanism was tested on a simulated lunar surface to mimic various touchdown scenarios.
Chandrayaan-3 represents a significant leap forward in India’s space exploration endeavors, aiming to achieve pioneering milestones in lunar exploration technology. The mission’s focus on safe landing, roving capabilities and scientific experimentation is poised to enhance our understanding of the moon and its potential as a platform for future space exploration missions.
Moon mission
ISRO pulled off an incredible feat as its Chandrayaan-3 spacecraft’s Vikram lander gently touched down near the little-explored southern region of the moon, marking a world-first accomplishment for any space program.
The historic landing not only signifies India’s ascent as a formidable player in space exploration, but also underscores its determination to encourage investments in private space launches and satellite-based ventures. The event was met with cheers and celebrations across the nation, where people gathered at watching parties to witness the historic moment.
The meticulous planning and execution of the final landing phase were critical to its success. The lander underwent a complex maneuver, decelerating from a staggering 3,730 mph to nearly 0 mph, all while transitioning from a horizontal to a vertical position. This precise operation required finesse, as excessive force could have led to a mishap, while too little force could have caused the lander to veer off course.
This achievement is particularly gratifying for India after a setback during its previous moon mission in 2019, when the lander failed to adjust its position during the final descent. The meticulous efforts put into Chandrayaan-3’s design and execution paid off, proving India’s capabilities and resilience in the face of challenges.
This achievement could not have come at a more opportune time, as global attention turns to space exploration. India’s success follows Russia’s recent unsuccessful moon mission and coincides with China’s ambitious space goals. China has been actively expanding its space capabilities, with plans to put astronauts on the moon in the coming decade.
India’s accomplishment aligns with its economic growth and technological prowess, further solidifying its position among the world’s leading nations. Prime Minister Narendra Modi’s government views this success as a testament to India’s technological advancement and as an opportunity to bolster national pride ahead of an upcoming general election.
As India’s lunar journey continues and its rover embarks on an unprecedented exploration of the moon’s southern regions, the world watches in awe and anticipation. This triumph is not just a victory for India’s space agency, but a testament to human innovation and determination to explore the unknown.
The recent failure of Russia’s moon mission serves as a reminder of the inherent difficulties and dangers of space exploration. The failure of the Luna-25 spacecraft demonstrates the complexities of executing successful lunar missions and the necessity of precise engineering, planning and execution. Despite having decades of experience in space exploration, Russia’s misstep shows that even the most seasoned competitors in the space race can encounter unanticipated obstacles.
The difficulties encountered by Russia’s Luna-25 mission, which were attributed to a lack of expertise resulting from a protracted hiatus in lunar research since the last Soviet mission in 1976, highlight the significance of continuous investment in research and development. Space exploration necessitates not only cutting-edge technology, but also a steadfast dedication to refining and expanding knowledge.
As the world looks to the moon and beyond for new discoveries and opportunities, setbacks like this remind us of the pioneering spirit necessary to stretch the limits of human achievement. They also highlight the common obstacles that all nations pursuing space exploration must overcome.
Semiconductor industry for India’s mission
When it comes to the success of Chandrayaan-3, Renesas, Microchip Technology, Texas Instruments (TI) and Infineon Technologies products played a pivotal role.
The success of ambitious missions like India’s Chandrayaan-3 hinges on cutting-edge technology that can withstand the harsh and unforgiving environment of space. Central to this success are electronic components that deliver outstanding performance while being robust enough to endure extreme conditions.
Space missions, especially lunar endeavors, demand electronic components that are both energy-efficient and highly reliable. The delicate balance between size, weight and power is crucial, as any excess in these parameters could jeopardize the mission’s success. Moreover, space is fraught with radiation hazards that can cause single-event latchups and single-event upsets, potentially disrupting the entire mission.
Renesas
“The products utilized on the Chandrayaan-3 mission [include] power management, internal system communications and sensor signal processing,” said Josh Broline, senior director of product marketing and applications for the radiation-hardened (rad-hard) business at Renesas. “Proper and reliable power conditioning, fault monitoring, precision internal communications, and sensor processing for real-time command and control are just some of the areas Renesas high-reliability products contributed to the success of this mission.”
Space missions are exposed to high levels of radiation from various sources, including solar flares and cosmic rays. Renesas products are tailored to withstand these extreme conditions, ensuring the continuous functionality of critical systems.
“We strive to select the process technologies and customize them in order to have a solid foundation for designing and laying out the integrated circuits that eventually are offered to the market,” Broline said. “With specific design and individual device-level layout techniques, this helps us achieve the product performance and radiation performance needed by our customers to have confidence in their system-level designs. Finally, we package the die in a ceramic hermetically sealed package and run extensive characterization and qualification testing prior to releasing the product to an ongoing rigorous manufacturing screening procedure.”
Broline added that Renesas products were used mainly for internal functionality versus external communications between the lander, rover and Earth. “Reliable power management or power conditioning is critical for the external communication systems of the vehicles. This is where we currently add value when it comes to this area of the systems.”
In space, power efficiency is paramount for the longevity of missions. Renesas’ high-reliability products were optimized not only for their power efficiency, but also for their ability to function optimally in a radiation-laden environment. The products’ efficient power management architecture complemented the overall power-conditioning strategy, ensuring that the available power resources were utilized optimally. This balance between efficiency and radiation resilience was vital for sustained mission operations.
Microchip Technology
Microchip’s radiation-tolerant (RT) field-programmable gate arrays (FPGAs) played a pivotal role in the success of the Chandrayaan-3 mission, offering a range of key features and advantages.
“Microchip’s radiation-tolerant, hermetically sealed, metal-to-metal antifuse-based FPGAs are qualified for QML Class Q, V and MIL-STD-883B flow have SEU-hardened registers, which eliminate the need for TMR [triple-module redundancy],” said Tim Morin, technical fellow for Microchip’s FPGA business unit. “These are immune to SEU to LET threshold >37 MeV-cm2. The SRAMs are protected with EDAC [error detection and correction] IP with integrated SRAM scrubbers. The RT FPGAs are tested for military temperature ranges from –55°C to 125°C and TID [total ionizing dose] rates of up to 300 krad.”
Memory management plays a pivotal role in space applications, especially during critical operations like lunar landings and rover missions. Microchip’s RT FPGAs incorporate a sophisticated approach to memory protection. Non-volatile FPGAs require no external memory to load on each power-up, consume less power than SRAM FPGAs, do not experience high inrush currents and reduce component count.
The combination of Axcelerator standard SRAM circuits and an EDAC IP core empowers these FPGAs to mitigate the effects of soft errors, maintaining the integrity of stored data, according to Morin. The shortened Hamming codes employed in the EDAC IP offer exceptional error-correction capabilities, with error rates better than 10–10 errors/bit-day. To ensure memory remains uncorrupted during periods of non-use, background memory-refresh circuitry is integrated into the EDAC IP. This meticulous approach guarantees the reliability of data storage and retrieval, critical for the success of complex space missions.
The energy efficiency of components is paramount in space missions, where power resources are limited and every watt counts. “Microchip’s radiation-tolerant FPGAs shine in this aspect, particularly non-volatile FPGAs that exhibit lower power consumption than their SRAM counterparts,” Morin said. “The absence of inrush currents, coupled with the elimination of the need for external memory loading during power-up, minimizes energy consumption. This optimized power profile extends the mission’s lifespan by efficiently managing available power resources, allowing the Chandrayaan-3 mission to accomplish its objectives with minimal energy usage.”
Complex space mission software development requires a supportive and integrated environment. Libero IDE and Designer FPGA software support Microchip’s RT FPGAs. This complete package integrates design tools and guides designers through the workflow, according to Morin. Designer software’s SmartTime, NetlistViewer, ChipPlanner, SmartPower, PinEditor and I/O Attribute Editor enhance the design process and make it interoperable with common FPGA design and verification tools.
Texas Instruments
TI participated in the success of Chandrayaan-3 by providing a wide array of space-grade semiconductor solutions, such as power management, data converters, clocking systems, amplifiers, digital signal processors and interface devices.
In the realm of space exploration, reliability is of paramount importance. “TI ensures the robustness of [its] solutions through meticulous radiation-hardening and fault-tolerance measures,” Javier Valle, aerospace power systems manager, and Ravneet Kotwal, sales and marketing director for India, both with TI, said in an interview with EE Times. “The harsh radiation environment of space demands semiconductor devices that can withstand these challenges. TI’s products are designed, rigorously tested, and qualified to meet these stringent electrical and radiation requirements for space applications.”
Each rad-hard device undergoes individual testing before being shipped to customers, and comprehensive documentation of these test results is provided. TI’s collaboration with ISRO has shown that the Indian space agency maintains the highest-quality standards when selecting components for critical missions, according to speakers. Furthermore, redundancy is a key feature of many space projects, with backup systems in place to ensure mission success even in the face of unexpected failures.
Kotwal discussed the challenges of communication in space environments and how TI’s solutions address the need for robust communication protocols and data integrity, mentioning two aspects: external communication with entities outside of the spacecraft and internal communication within the spacecraft. For external communication, there’s a global shift toward higher-frequency bands like X, Ku and Ka bands to achieve higher throughput and data rates. Kotwal noted TI’s role in this by providing high-speed ADCs, DACs and low-phase–noise high-frequency clocking synthesizers to help customers achieve wide-band transmission and reception.
“For communication within the spacecraft, we help our customers maintain the data integrity and achieve ruggedization with the help of our interface devices,” Kotwal said. “Also, TI power products provide clean and reliable power supplies in space environments. Low-noise supplies are critical to products that perform the robust, high-bandwidth communication needed for space applications.”
In the context of extended space missions and rover operations, power efficiency and autonomous navigation are critical considerations. Valle and Kotwal spoke about the company’s optimized solutions for these challenges:
Power efficiency: Valle noted the importance of power efficiency and density in space missions. TI’s products undergo a meticulous development process with these specifications in mind. The company focuses on feature selection, die size and package optimization to ensure that its solutions are power-efficient, considering the limited power resources available on the moon’s surface.
Autonomous navigation and obstacle avoidance: Kotwal discussed the role of sensor integration and control algorithms in rover operations. While TI doesn’t design sensors, it assists customers in converting data from cameras and radar sensors from analog to digital using data converters. Its products also offer essential information like current sensing, temperature and regulation status, enabling the rover’s system to make informed decisions, especially concerning power optimization.
Infineon Technologies
The space environment exposes components to extreme radiation. The components are conceived, designed and produced to ESA and ESCC specifications. This compliance ensures that space mission components fulfill strict quality and reliability criteria.
Infineon utilizes specialized design techniques and rigorous production processes to ensure the reliability of components for space applications. The company addresses radiation concerns, including TID and single-event effects, by employing rad-hard methods. Components are hermetically sealed to protect against moisture and contaminants in the harsh space environment. Extensive screening, including stress tests and data analysis, ensures that only the most reliable components are used in space missions. This comprehensive approach minimizes the risk of failures and guarantees the longevity of components in space.
Infineon’s products, particularly its small-signal bipolar transistors for high-frequency applications (RF transistors) and PowerMOS transistors (power switches), have contributed significantly to the accomplishment of India’s lunar mission. These components were utilized due to their sophisticated features and advantages, which correlate with the stringent requirements of space agencies like ESA, NASA and JAXA.
The components were chosen for their advanced features, compliance with space agency requirements, rad-hard technology, hermetic packaging, stable production quality and proven space heritage.
According to Wolfgang Kübler, senior marketing manager for high-reliability products at Infineon, the company’s RF transistors are optimized for high-frequency applications, making them ideal for communication systems onboard the spacecraft. “Their ability to efficiently handle high-frequency signals ensured clear and reliable communication between the spacecraft and mission control on Earth,” he said.
Moreover, Infineon’s rad-hard power MOSFETs are designed to handle high power levels efficiently. “In the context of the lunar mission, these components were crucial for managing and controlling the distribution of electrical power within the spacecraft’s subsystems,” Kübler said.
These transistors are protected from the space vacuum by hermetic encapsulation, according to Kübler. This packaging keeps moisture and impurities out of the components’ way
Infineon’s power switches are renowned for their exceptional RDS(on) performance in rad-hard components, enabling customers to construct highly efficient DC/DC converters, with efficiencies ranging from 95% to 98%. This efficiency ensures that every bit of solar energy collected by the satellite’s panels is effectively utilized to power its payloads.
Additionally, Infineon’s RF transistors play a pivotal role in facilitating seamless communication between the lander, rover and the ground station on Earth throughout the mission. These transistors are responsible for transmitting critical commands, sensor data and large volumes of imagery and analysis data.
“Notably, Infineon’s SeGe technology RF transistors, utilized in the first- and second-stage LNAs, are characterized by remarkably low noise figures and exceptionally low power consumption,” Kübler said. “These features contribute to maintaining a high signal-to-noise ratio on the receiver side, ensuring reliable and efficient communication for the success of the mission.”
Every facet of production is rigorously scrutinized, adhering to space agency requirements, including material selection, manufacturing processes and testing protocols. Components undergo exhaustive screening, enduring stress tests like temperature cycling and burn-in tests, mirroring the rigors of space. This identifies early failures, permitting the removal of defective components from the final product.
Electrical parameters are meticulously measured and documented pre- and post-screening, with data analysis pinpointing components not meeting stringent space-worthiness criteria. These are meticulously sorted out to ensure only the most reliable components embark on space missions.
Latest analysis
ChaSTE is a cutting-edge lunar exploration payload developed by a team led by the Space Physics Laboratory at the Vikram Sarabhai Space Centre in collaboration with the Physical Research Laboratory (PRL) in Ahmedabad, India. This innovative instrument is designed to investigate the thermal behavior of the lunar surface, specifically in the vicinity of the lunar south pole.
ChaSTE features a temperature probe equipped with a controlled penetration mechanism, enabling it to delve up to 10 cm beneath the lunar surface. The probe is equipped with 10 temperature sensors, allowing for highly detailed temperature measurements at different depths.
Recently, ChaSTE provided the first-ever temperature profile of the lunar south pole, showcasing temperature variations in the lunar surface and near-subsurface as the probe penetrated deeper. This invaluable data will significantly contribute to our understanding of the moon’s thermal characteristics and how they evolve with depth.
As detailed observations continue, ChaSTE promises to unlock new insights into the moon’s geophysical processes and enhance our knowledge of lunar science. This mission stands as a testament to India’s space research capabilities and its contributions to lunar exploration.
The LIBS instrument onboard the Chandrayaan-3 rover has achieved a significant breakthrough by conducting in-situ measurements of the lunar surface near the south pole. This groundbreaking technique utilizes intense laser pulses to analyze the composition of materials, generating plasma that emits characteristic wavelengths of light for each element present.
Preliminary findings confirm the presence of sulfur, aluminum, calcium, iron, chromium, titanium, manganese, silicon and oxygen on the lunar surface. The investigation into the presence of hydrogen is ongoing, marking a crucial step in our understanding of lunar composition. These in-situ measurements provide valuable insights unattainable by orbiters, advancing lunar science and exploration.
The APXS, located onboard a rover on the lunar surface, is a specialized instrument designed for in-situ analysis of the elemental composition of rocks and soil on celestial bodies with minimal atmosphere, such as the moon. It employs radioactive sources to emit alpha particles and X-rays onto the surface sample. When the sample’s atoms interact with these emissions, they emit characteristic X-ray lines that correspond to the elements present. By analyzing the energies and intensities of these X-rays, scientists can determine the elements within the sample and their relative abundances.
Recent APXS observations have revealed the presence of noteworthy minor elements, including sulfur, in addition to the expected major elements like aluminum, silicon, calcium and iron. This discovery aligns with findings from the LIBS instrument onboard the rover, which also confirmed the presence of sulfur. Scientists are currently engaged in detailed scientific analysis of these observations.
The APXS instrument was developed by the PRL, with support from the Space Application Centre in Ahmedabad. The deployment mechanism for APXS was constructed by the UR Rao Satellite Centre in Bengaluru, India. These collaborative efforts have enabled valuable insights into the elemental composition of lunar samples, contributing to our understanding of celestial bodies with minimal atmospheres.
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